______________________________________________________________________

  3   Basic concepts                                   [basic]

  ______________________________________________________________________

1 This clause presents the basic  concepts  of  the  C++  language.   It
  explains  the  difference  between  an  object and a name and how they
  relate to the notion of an lvalue.  It introduces the  concepts  of  a
  declaration and a definition and presents C++'s notion of type, scope,
  linkage, and storage duration.  The mechanisms for starting and termi­
  nating  a  program  are  discussed.  Finally, this clause presents the
  fundamental types of the language and lists the ways  of  constructing
  compound types from these.

2 This  clause does not cover concepts that affect only a single part of
  the language.  Such concepts are discussed in the relevant clauses.

3 An entity is a value, object, subobject, base class  subobject,  array
  element, variable, function, set of functions, instance of a function,
  enumerator, type, class member, template, or namespace.

4 A name is a use of an identifier (_lex.name_) that denotes  an  entity
  or label (_stmt.goto_, _stmt.label_).

5 Every  name  that  denotes  an  entity is introduced by a declaration.
  Every name that denotes a label is introduced either by a goto  state­
  ment  (_stmt.goto_) or a labeled-statement (_stmt.label_).  Every name
  is introduced in some contiguous portion  of  program  text  called  a
  declarative  region  (_basic.scope_), which is the largest part of the
  program in which that name can possibly be valid.   In  general,  each
  particular  name is valid only within some possibly discontiguous por­
  tion of program text called its scope (_basic.scope_).   To  determine
  the scope of a declaration, it is sometimes convenient to refer to the
  potential scope of a declaration.  The scope of a declaration  is  the
  same  as  its  potential  scope  unless  the  potential scope contains
  another declaration of the same name.  In  that  case,  the  potential
  scope  of  the declaration in the inner (contained) declarative region
  is excluded from the scope of the declaration in the  outer  (contain­
  ing) declarative region.

6 For example, in

          int j = 24;

          main()
          {
                  int i = j, j;

                  j = 42;
          }
  the  identifier  j  is declared twice as a name (and used twice).  The
  declarative region of the first j includes the  entire  example.   The
  potential  scope  of  the  first j begins immediately after that j and
  extends to the end of the program, but its (actual) scope excludes the
  text  between  the  , and the }.  The declarative region of the second
  declaration of j (the j immediately before the semicolon) includes all
  the  text between { and }, but its potential scope excludes the decla­
  ration of i.  The scope of the second declaration of j is the same  as
  its potential scope.

7 Some names denote types, classes, enumerations, or templates.  In gen­
  eral, it is necessary to determine whether or not a name  denotes  one
  of  these  entities  before parsing the program that contains it.  The
  process that determines this is called name lookup.

8 Two names denote the same entity if

  --they are identifiers composed of the same character sequence; or

  --they are the names of overloaded operator functions formed with  the
    same operator; or

  --they  are the names of user-defined conversion functions formed with
    the same type.

9 An identifier used in more than one translation unit  may  potentially
  refer  to  the same entity in these translation units depending on the
  linkage (_basic.link_) specified in the translation units.

10An object is a region of storage (_basic.lval_).  In addition to  giv­
  ing  it  a  name, declaring an object gives the object a storage dura­
  tion, (_basic.stc_), which determines  the  object's  lifetime.   Some
  objects are polymorphic; the implementation generates information car­
  ried in each such object that makes  it  possible  to  determine  that
  object's  type during program execution.  For other objects, the mean­
  ing of the values found therein is  determined  by  the  type  of  the
  expressions used to access them.

  +-------                 BEGIN BOX 1                -------+
  Most of this section needs more work.
  +-------                  END BOX 1                 -------+

  3.1  Declarations and definitions                          [basic.def]

1 A  declaration (_dcl.dcl_) introduces one or more names into a program
  and gives each name a meaning.

2 A declaration is a definition unless it declares  a  function  without
  specifying the function's body (_dcl.fct.def_), it contains the extern
  specifier (_dcl.stc_) and neither an initializer nor a  function-body,
  it   declares   a   static   data   member   in  a  class  declaration
  (_class.static_), it is a class name declaration (_class.name_), or it
  is   a   typedef   declaration   (_dcl.typedef_),   a  using  declara­
  tion(_namespace.udecl_), or a using directive(_namespace.udir_).

3 The following, for example, are definitions:
          int a;                       // defines a
          extern const int c = 1;      // defines c
          int f(int x) { return x+a; } // defines f
          struct S { int a; int b; };  // defines S
          struct X {                   // defines X
              int x;                   // defines nonstatic data member x
              static int y;            // declares static data member y
              X(): x(0) { }            // defines a constructor of X
          };
          int X::y = 1;                // defines X::y
          enum { up, down };           // defines up and down
          namespace N { int d; }       // defines N and N::d
          namespace N1 = N;            // defines N1
          X anX;                       // defines anX
  whereas these are just declarations:
          extern int a;                // declares a
          extern const int c;          // declares c
          int f(int);                  // declares f
          struct S;                    // declares S
          typedef int Int;             // declares Int
          extern X anotherX;           // declares anotherX
          using N::d;                  // declares N::d

4 In some circumstances, C++ implementations generate definitions  auto­
  matically.   These definitions include default constructors, copy con­
  structors, assignment operators, and destructors.  For example, given
          struct C {
              string s;    // string is the standard library class (_lib.string_)
          };

          main()
          {
              C a;
              C b=a;
              b=a;
          }
  the implementation will generate functions to make the definition of C
  equivalent to

          struct C {
              string s;
              C(): s() { }
              C(const C& x): s(x.s) { }
              C& operator=(const C& x) { s = x.s; return *this; }
              ~C() { }
          };

5 A  class  name  can also implicitly be declared by an elaborated-type-
  specifier (_dcl.type.elab_).

  3.2  One definition rule                               [basic.def.odr]

  +-------                 BEGIN BOX 2                -------+
  This is still very much under review by the Committee.
  +-------                  END BOX 2                 -------+

1 No translation unit shall contain more  than  one  definition  of  any
  variable, function, class type, enumeration type or template.

2 A  function  is used if it is called, its address is taken, or it is a
  virtual member function that is not  pure  (_class.abstract_).   Every
  program  shall  contain at least one definition of every function that
  is used in that program.  That definition may appear explicitly in the
  program, it may be found in the standard or a user-defined library, or
  (when appropriate) the implementation may  generate  it.   If  a  non-
  virtual  function  is not defined, a diagnostic is required only if an
  attempt is actually made to call that function.  If a virtual function
  is neither called nor defined, no diagnostic is required.

  +-------                 BEGIN BOX 3                -------+
  This   says   nothing   about  user-defined  libraries.   Probably  it
  shouldn't, but perhaps it should be more explicit that it  isn't  dis­
  cussing it.
  +-------                  END BOX 3                 -------+

3 Exactly  one definition in a program is required for a non-local vari­
  able with static storage duration, unless it has a builtin type or  is
  an  aggregate  and  also  is unused or used only as the operand of the
  sizeof operator.

  +-------                 BEGIN BOX 4                -------+
  This is still uncertain.
  +-------                  END BOX 4                 -------+

4 At least one definition of a class is required in a  translation  unit
  if  the class is used other than in the formation of a pointer or ref­
  erence type.

  +-------                 BEGIN BOX 5                -------+
  This is not quite right, because it is possible to declare a  function

  that  has  an  undefined class type as its return type, that has argu­
  ments of undefined class type.
  +-------                  END BOX 5                 -------+

  +-------                 BEGIN BOX 6                -------+
  There may be other situations that  do  not  require  a  class  to  be
  defined:  extern  declarations  (i.e.  "extern  X x;"), declaration of
  static members, others???
  +-------                  END BOX 6                 -------+

  For example the following complete translation  unit  is  well-formed,
  even though it never defines X:
          struct X;      // declare X is a struct type
          struct X* x1;  // use X in pointer formation
          X* x2;         // use X in pointer formation

5 There may be more than one definition of a named enumeration type in a
  program provided that each definition appears in a different  transla­
  tion unit and the names and values of the enumerators are the same.

  +-------                 BEGIN BOX 7                -------+
  This will need to be revisited when the ODR is made more precise
  +-------                  END BOX 7                 -------+

6 There  may  be  more  than one definition of a class type in a program
  provided that each definition appears in a different translation  unit
  and the definitions describe the same type.

7 No diagnostic is required for a violation of the ODR rule.

  +-------                 BEGIN BOX 8                -------+
  This will need to be revisited when the ODR is made more precise
  +-------                  END BOX 8                 -------+

  3.3  Declarative regions and scopes                      [basic.scope]

1 The scope rules are summarized in _class.scope_.

  3.3.1  Local scope                                 [basic.scope.local]

1 A name declared in a block (_stmt.block_) is local to that block.  Its
  scope begins at its point  of  declaration  (_basic.scope.pdecl_)  and
  ends at the end of its declarative region.

2 Names  of parameters of a function are local to the function and shall
  not be redeclared in the outermost block of that function.

3 The name in a catch exception-declaration is local to the handler  and
  shall not be redeclared in the outermost block of the handler.

4 Names  declared  in the for-init-statement, condition, and controlling
  expression parts of if, while, for, and switch statments are local  to
  the  if,  while,  for,  or  switch statement (including the controlled
  statement), and shall not be redeclared in a subsequent  condition  or
  controlling expression of that statement nor in the outermost block of
  the controlled statement.

5 Names declared in the outermost block of the controlled statement of a
  do statement shall not be redeclared in the controlling expression.

  3.3.2  Function prototype scope                    [basic.scope.proto]

1 In  a  function  declaration, or in any function declarator except the
  declarator of a function definition, names of parameters (if supplied)
  have  function  prototype  scope,  which  terminates at the end of the
  function declarator.

  3.3.3  Function scope

1 Labels (_stmt.label_) can be used anywhere in the  function  in  which
  they are declared.  Only labels have function scope.

  3.3.4  Namespace scope                         [basic.scope.namespace]

1 A  name  declared  in a named or unnamed namespace (_basic.namespace_)
  has namespace scope.  Its potential scope includes its namespace  from
  the name's point of declaration (_basic.scope.pdecl_) onwards, as well
  as the potential scope of any using directive (_namespace.udir_)  that
  nominates  its  namespace.   A namespace member can also be used after
  the :: scope resolution operator (_expr.prim_) applied to the name  of
  its namespace.

2 A   name   declared   outside   all   named   or   unnamed  namespaces
  (_basic.namespace_), blocks (_stmt.block_) and classes  (_class_)  has
  global  namespace  scope  (also  called  global scope).  The potential
  scope  of  such  a  name  begins   at   its   point   of   declaration
  (_basic.scope.pdecl_) and ends at the end of the translation unit that
  is its declarative region.  Names declared  in  the  global  namespace
  scope are said to be global.

  3.3.5  Class scope                                 [basic.scope.class]

1 The  name of a class member is local to its class and can be used only
  in:

    --the scope of  that  class  (_class.scope0_)  or  a  class  derived
      (_class.derived_) from that class,

    --after  the  . operator applied to an expression of the type of its
      class (_expr.ref_) or a class derived from its class,

    --after the -> operator applied to a pointer to  an  object  of  its
      class (_expr.ref_) or a class derived from its class,

    --after  the  ::  scope resolution operator (_expr.prim_) applied to
      the name of its class or a class derived from its class,

    --or after a using declaration (_namespace.udecl_).

2 The scope of names introduced by friend declarations is  described  in
  _namespace.def_.

3 The scope rules for classes are summarized in _class.scope0_.

  3.3.6  Name hiding                                [basic.scope.hiding]

1 A name may be hidden by an explicit declaration of that same name in a
  nested declarative region or derived class.

2 A class name (_class.name_) or enumeration name  (_dcl.enum_)  can  be
  hidden  by  the name of an object, function, or enumerator declared in
  the same scope.  If a class or enumeration name and an  object,  func­
  tion, or enumerator are declared in the same scope (in any order) with
  the same name, the class or enumeration name is  hidden  wherever  the
  object, function, or enumerator name is visible.

3 If a name is in scope and is not hidden it is said to be visible.

4 The region in which a name is visible is called the reach of the name.

  +-------                 BEGIN BOX 9                -------+
  The term 'reach' is defined here but never used.  More work is  needed
  with the "descriptive terminology".
  +-------                  END BOX 9                 -------+

  3.3.7  Explicit qualification                     [basic.scope.exqual]

  +-------                BEGIN BOX 10                -------+
  The information in this section is very similar to the one provided in
  _namespace.qual_.    The   information   in   these    two    sections
  (_basic.scope.exqual_  and _namespace.qual_) should be consolidated in
  one place.
  +-------                 END BOX 10                 -------+

1 A name hidden by a nested declarative  region  or  derived  class  can
  still  be  used  when  it  is qualified by its class or namespace name
  using the :: operator (_expr.prim_, _class.static_,  _class.derived_).
  A hidden file scope name can still be used when it is qualified by the
  unary :: operator (_expr.prim_).

  3.3.8  Elaborated type specifier                    [basic.scope.elab]

1 A class name or enumeration name can be  hidden  by  the  name  of  an
  object, function, or enumerator in local, class or namespace scope.  A
  hidden class name can still be used when appropriately  prefixed  with

  class, struct, or union (_dcl.type_), or when followed by the :: oper­
  ator.  A hidden enumeration name can still be used when  appropriately
  prefixed with enum (_dcl.type_).  For example:
          class A {
          public:
              static int n;
          };

          main()
          {
              int A;

              A::n = 42;          // OK
              class A a;          // OK
              A b;                // ill-formed: A does not name a type
          }
  The   scope  of  class  names  first  introduced  in  elaborated-type-
  specifiers is described in (_dcl.type.elab_).

  3.3.9  Point of declaration                        [basic.scope.pdecl]

1 The point of declaration for a name is immediately after its  complete
  declarator (_dcl.decl_) and before its initializer (if any), except as
  noted below.  For example,
      int x = 12;
      { int x = x; }

2 Here the second x is initialized with its own (unspecified) value.

3 For the point of declaration for an enumerator, see _dcl.enum_.

4 The point of declaration of a function with the extern or friend spec­
  ifier  is  in  the  innermost enclosing namespace just after outermost
  nested scope containing it which is contained in the namespace.

  +-------                BEGIN BOX 11                -------+
  The terms "just after the outermost nested scope"  imply  name  injec­
  tion.   We  avoided  introducing  the concept of name injection in the
  working paper up until now.  We should probably continue to  do  with­
  out.
  +-------                 END BOX 11                 -------+

5 The  point  of declaration of a class first declared in an elaborated-
  type-specifier is immediately after the identifier;

6 A nonlocal name remains visible up to the point of declaration of  the
  local name that hides it.  For example,
      const int  i = 2;
      { int  i[i]; }
  declares a local array of two integers.

7 The  point of instantiation of a template is described in _temp.inst_.

  3.4  Program and linkage                                  [basic.link]

1 A program consists of one or more  translation  units  (_lex_)  linked
  together.   A translation unit consists of a sequence of declarations.
          translation unit:
                  declaration-seqopt

2 A name is said to have linkage when it may  denote  the  same  object,
  function,  type, template, or value as a name introduced by a declara­
  tion in another scope:

    --When a name has external linkage, the entity  it  denotes  may  be
      referred  to  by  names  from scopes of other translation units or
      from other scopes of the same translation unit.

    --When a name has internal linkage, the entity  it  denotes  may  be
      referred  to  by  names  from other scopes of the same translation
      unit.

    --When a name has no  linkage,  the  entity  it  denotes  cannot  be
      referred to by names from other scopes.

3 A name of namespace scope (_basic.scope.namespace_) has internal link­
  age if it is the name of

  --a variable that is  explicitly  declared  static  or  is  explicitly
    declared const and neither explicitly declared extern nor previously
    declared to have external linkage; or

  --a function that is  explicitly  declared  static  or  is  explicitly
    declared  inline  and  neither explicitly declared extern nor previ­
    ously declared to have external linkage; or

  --the name of  a  data  member  of  an  anonymous  union.

4 A name of namespace scope has external linkage if it is the name of

    --a variable, unless it has internal linkage; or

    --a function, unless it has internal linkage; or

    --a class (_class_) or enumeration (_dcl.enum_) or an enumerator; or

    --a template (_temp_).

    In  addition, a name of class scope has external linkage if the name
    of the class has external linkage.

  +-------                BEGIN BOX 12                -------+
  What is the linkage of unnamed classes  and  their  members?   Unnamed
  enumeration and their enumerators?
  +-------                 END BOX 12                 -------+

5 The  name  of  a  function  declared  in  a  block scope or a variable
  declared extern in a block  scope  has  linkage,  either  internal  or
  external  to  match  the  linkage of prior visible declarations of the
  name in the same translation unit, but if there is  no  prior  visible
  declaration it has external linkage.

6 Names not covered by these rules have no linkage.  Moreover, except as
  noted, a name declared in a local scope (_basic.scope.local_)  has  no
  linkage.  A name with no linkage (notably, the name of a class or enu­
  meration declared in a local scope (_basic.scope.local_)) may  not  be
  used to declare an entity with linkage.  For example:
          void f()
          {
              struct A { int x; };       // no linkage
              extern A a;                // ill-formed
          }
  This  implies  that  names  with no linkage cannot be used as template
  arguments (_temp.arg_).

7 Two names that are the same and that are declared in different  scopes
  shall  denote the same object, function, type, enumerator, or template
  if

    --both names have external linkage or else both names have  internal
      linkage and are declared in the same translation unit; and

    --both  names  refer to members of the same namespace or to members,
      not by inheritance, of the same class; and

    --when both names denote functions or function templates, the  func­
      tion types are identical for purposes of overloading.

8 After  all adjustments of types (during which typedefs (_dcl.typedef_)
  are replaced by their definitions), the types specified by all  decla­
  rations  of  a particular external name must be identical, except that
  such types may differ by the presence or  absence  of  a  major  array
  bound (_dcl.array_). A violation of this rule does not require a diag­
  nostic.

  +-------                BEGIN BOX 13                -------+
  This needs to specified more precisely  to  deal  with  function  name
  overloading.
  +-------                 END BOX 13                 -------+

9 Linkage  to  non-C++  declarations  can  be  achieved using a linkage-
  specification (_dcl.link_).

  3.5  Start and termination                               [basic.start]

  3.5.1  Main function                                [basic.start.main]

1 A program shall contain global a function called main,  which  is  the
  designated start of the program.

2 This  function  is  not predefined by the compiler, it cannot be over­
  loaded, and its type is implementation dependent.   The  two  examples
  below  are  allowed on any implementation.  It is recommended that any
  further (optional) parameters  be  added  after  argv.   The  function
  main() may be defined as
          int main() { /* ... */ }
  or
          int main(int argc, char* argv[]) { /* ... */ }
  In the latter form argc shall be the number of arguments passed to the
  program from an environment in which the program is run.  If  argc  is
  nonzero   these   arguments  shall  be  supplied  in  argv[0]  through
  argv[argc-1] as pointers to the initial characters of  zero-terminated
  strings;  and argv[0] shall be the pointer to the initial character of
  a zero-terminated string that represents the name used to  invoke  the
  program or "".  It is guaranteed that argv[argc]==0.

3 The  function  main()  shall not be called from within a program.  The
  linkage (_basic.link_) of main()  is  implementation  dependent.   The
  address  of main() shall not be taken and main() shall not be declared
  inline or static.  The name main is not otherwise reserved.  For exam­
  ple,  member  functions, classes, and enumerations can be called main,
  as may entities in other namespaces.

4 Calling the function
          void exit(int);
  declared in <cstdlib>  (_lib.exit_)  terminates  the  program  without
  leaving the current block and hence without destroying any local vari­
  ables (_class.dtor_).  The argument value is returned to the program's
  environment as the value of the program.

5 A  return statement in main() has the effect of leaving the main func­
  tion (destroying any local variables)  and  calling  exit()  with  the
  return  value  as  the  argument.   If control reaches the end of main
  without encountering a return statement, the effect is that of execut­
  ing
          return 0;

  3.5.2  Initialization of non-local objects          [basic.start.init]

  +-------                BEGIN BOX 14                -------+
  This is still under active discussion by the committee.
  +-------                 END BOX 14                 -------+

1 The  initialization  of  nonlocal  static  objects  (_basic.stc_) in a
  translation unit is done before the  first  use  of  any  function  or
  object   defined  in  that  translation  unit.   Such  initializations
  (_dcl.init_, _class.static_, _class.ctor_, _class.expl.init_)  may  be
  done  before the first statement of main() or deferred to any point in

  time before the first use of a function  or  object  defined  in  that
  translation unit.  The default initialization of all static objects to
  zero  (_dcl.init_)  is  performed  before  any  other  initialization.
  Static  objects  initialized  with constant expressions (_expr.const_)
  are initialized before any dynamic (that is, run-time)  initialization
  takes  place.   No  further  order is imposed on the initialization of
  objects from different translation units.  The initialization of local
  static objects is described in _stmt.dcl_.

2 If  construction  or  destruction of a non-local static object ends in
  throwing an uncaught exception, the  result  is  to  call  terminate()
  (_except.terminate_).

  3.5.3  Termination                                  [basic.start.term]

1 Destructors  (_class.dtor_)  for initialized static objects are called
  when returning from  main()  and  when  calling  exit()  (_lib.exit_).
  Destruction  is done in reverse order of initialization.  The function
  atexit() from <cstdlib> can be used to specify that a function must be
  called  at  exit.   If  atexit()  is to be called, objects initialized
  before an atexit() call may not be destroyed until after the  function
  specified in the atexit() call has been called.

2 Where  a  C++  implementation  coexists  with  a C implementation, any
  actions specified by the C implementation  to  take  place  after  the
  atexit()  functions  have been called take place after all destructors
  have been called.

3 Calling the function
          void abort();
  declared  in  <cstdlib>  terminates  the  program  without   executing
  destructors  for  static  objects  and  without  calling the functions
  passed to atexit().

  3.6  Storage duration                                      [basic.stc]

1 The storage duration of an object determines its lifetime.

2 The storage class specifiers static, auto, and mutable are related  to
  storage duration as described below.

  3.6.1  Static storage duration                      [basic.stc.static]

1 All  non-local  variables have static storage duration; such variables
  are  created  and  destroyed  as  described   in   _basic.start_   and
  _stmt.dcl_.

2 Note  that  if an object of static storage duration has initialization
  or a destructor with side effects, it shall not be eliminated even  if
  it appears to be unused.

  +-------                BEGIN BOX 15                -------+
  This awaits committee action on the ``as-if'' rule.
  +-------                 END BOX 15                 -------+

3 The keyword static may be used to declare a local variable with static
  storage duration; for a description of initialization and  destruction
  of local variables, see _stmt.dcl_.

4 The  keyword  static applied to a class variable in a class definition
  also determines that it has static storage duration.

  3.6.2  Automatic storage duration                     [basic.stc.auto]

1 Local objects not declared static or explicitly declared auto or  reg­
  ister have automatic storage duration and are associated with an invo­
  cation of a block (_dcl.stc_).

2 Each  object  with   automatic   storage   duration   is   initialized
  (_dcl.init_)  each  time  the  control flow reaches its definition and
  destroyed (_class.dtor_) whenever control passes from within the scope
  of the object to outside that scope (_stmt.jump_).

3 A  named  automatic  object with a constructor or destructor with side
  effects may not be destroyed before the end of its block, nor  may  it
  be eliminated even if it appears to be unused.

  3.6.3  Dynamic storage duration                    [basic.stc.dynamic]

1 Objects   can   be   created   dynamically  during  program  execution
  (_intro.execution_), using new-expressions (_expr.new_), and destroyed
  using  delete-expressions  (_expr.delete_).  A C++ implementation pro­
  vides access to, and management of, dynamic  storage  via  the  global
  allocation  functions  operator  new (_lib.op.new_) and operator new[]
  (_lib.op.new.array_), and the global deallocation  functions  operator
  delete       (_lib.op.delete_)       and       operator       delete[]
  (_lib.op.delete.array_).

2 These functions are always implicitly declared.  The library  provides
  default  definitions  for  them (_lib.header.new_).  A C++ program may
  provide at most one definition of  any  of  the  functions  ::operator
  new(size_t),   ::operator   new[](size_t),  ::operator  delete(void*),
  and/or ::operator  delete[](void*).   Any  such  function  definitions
  replace  the  default  versions.  This replacement is global and takes
  effect upon program startup (_basic.start_).  Allocation and/or  deal­
  location  functions  may  also  be  declared and defined for any class
  (_class.free_).

3 Any allocation and/or deallocation functions defined in a C++  program
  shall conform to the semantics specified in this subclause.

  3.6.3.1  Allocation functions           [basic.stc.dynamic.allocation]

1 Allocation  functions  can  be static class member functions or global
  functions.  They may be overloaded, but the return type  shall  always
  be  void*  and  the  first  parameter  type  shall  always  be  size_t
  (_expr.sizeof_), an implementation-defined integral  type  defined  in
  the standard header <cstddef> (_lib.language.support_).

2 The  function shall return the address of a block of available storage
  at least as large as the requested size.  The order,  contiguity,  and
  initial  value  of storage allocated by successive calls to an alloca­
  tion function  is  unspecified.   The  pointer  returned  is  suitably
  aligned  so  that it may be assigned to a pointer of any type and then
  used to access such an object or an array of such objects in the stor­
  age  allocated  (until the storage is explicitly deallocated by a call
  to a corresponding deallocation function).  Each such allocation shall
  yield  a  pointer  to storage (_intro.memory_) disjoint from any other
  currently allocated storage.  The pointer returned points to the start
  (lowest  byte  address)  of the allocated storage.  If the size of the
  space requested is zero, the value returned shall be nonzero and shall
  not  pointer  to or within any other currently allocated storage.  The
  results of dereferencing a pointer returned as a request for zero size
  are undefined.1)

3 If an allocation function is unable to obtain an appropriate block  of
  storage,  it  may invoke  the currently installed new_handler2) and/or
  throw an exception (_except_) of class alloc (_lib.alloc_) or a  class
  derived from alloc.

4 If  the  allocation  function  returns  the null pointer the result is
  implementation defined.

  3.6.3.2  Deallocation functions       [basic.stc.dynamic.deallocation]

1 Like allocation functions, deallocation functions may be static  class
  member functions or global functions.

2 Each  deallocation  function shall return void and its first parameter
  shall be void*.  For class member  deallocation  functions,  a  second
  parameter  of  type size_t may be added but deallocation functions may
  not be overloaded.

3 The value of the first parameter supplied to a  deallocation  function
  shall  be  zero,  or  refer  to storage allocated by the corresponding
  allocation function (even if that allocation function was called  with
  a  zero  argument).   If  the value of the first argument is null, the
  call to the deallocation function has no effect.  If the value of  the
  first  argument refers to a pointer already deallocated, the effect is
  undefined.

4 A deallocation function may free the storage referenced by the pointer
  given  as  its  argument and renders the pointer invalid.  The storage
  may be available for further allocation.  An invalid pointer  contains
  an unusable value:  it cannot even be used in an expression.
  _________________________
  1)  The intent is to have operator new() implementable by calling mal­
  loc() or calloc(), so the rules are substantially the same.  C++  dif­
  fers  from C in requiring a zero request to return a non-null pointer.
  2)  A  program-supplied  allocation function may obtain the address of
  the currently installed new_handler using the set_new_handler()  func­
  tion (_lib.set.new.handler_).

5 If  the  argument  is  non-null, the value of a pointer that refers to
  deallocated space is indeterminate.  The effect  of  dereferencing  an
  indeterminate pointer value is undefined.3)

  3.6.4  Duration of sub-objects                     [basic.stc.inherit]

1 The storage duration of class subobjects, base  class  subobjects  and
  array elements is that of their complete object (_intro.memory_).

  3.6.5  The mutable keyword                         [basic.stc.mutable]

1 The  keyword mutable is grammatically a storage class specifier but is
  unrelated to the storage duration (lifetime) of the  class  member  it
  describes.    The   mutable  keyword  is  described  in  _basic.lval_,
  _expr.ref_, _dcl.stc_ and _dcl.type.cv_.

  3.6.6  Reference duration                              [basic.stc.ref]

1 A reference can be used to name  an  existing  object  denoted  by  an
  lvalue.   A  reference  initialization  can also create and name a new
  object from an lvalue (_dcl.init.ref_).

2 The reference has static storage  duration  if  it  is  declared  non-
  locally, automatic storage duration if declared locally including as a
  function parameter, or the storage duration of its class  if  declared
  in a class.

3 References may or may not require storage.

4 The  duration  of  a  reference  is  distinct from the duration of the
  object it refers to except in the case of a reference declaration ini­
  tialized by an rvalue (_dcl.init.ref_).

5 The  lifetime  of  a  reference  bound  in  a reference initialization
  (_dcl.init.ref_) ends on exit from the scope in which the  declaration
  occurs.

6 The   lifetime   of   a   reference   bound   in   a  ctor-initializer
  (_class.base.init_) is the lifetime of the subobject initialized.

7 The lifetime of a reference bound for a reference parameter in a func­
  tion call (_expr.call_) is until the completion of the call.

8 Access  through a reference to an object which no longer exists or has
  not yet been constructed yields undefined behaviour.

  +-------                BEGIN BOX 16                -------+
  Can references be declared auto or static?  This section probably does
  not belong here.
  +-------                 END BOX 16                 -------+

  _________________________
  3)  On some architectures, it causes a system-generated runtime fault.

  3.7  Types                                               [basic.types]

  +-------                BEGIN BOX 17                -------+
  Section _class.mem_ describes the concept of layout-compatible  types.
  Shouldn't this information be described here?
  +-------                 END BOX 17                 -------+

1 There  are  two  kinds of types: fundamental types and compound types.
  Types may  describe  objects,  references  (_dcl.ref_),  or  functions
  (_dcl.fct_).

2 Arrays  of  unknown  size  and classes that have been declared but not
  defined are called incomplete types because the size and structure  of
  an instance of the type is unknown.  Also, the void type represents an
  empty set of values, so that no objects of type void ever exist;  void
  is an incomplete type.  The term incompletely-defined object type is a
  synonym for incomplete type; the term completely-defined  object  type
  is a synonym for complete type;

3 A  class  type  (such  as class X) may be incomplete at one point in a
  translation unit and complete later on; the type class X is  the  same
  type  at both points.  The declared type of an array may be incomplete
  at one point in a translation unit and complete later  on;  the  array
  types  at those two points (array of unknown bound of T and array of N
  T) are different types.  However, the type of a pointer  to  array  of
  unknown  size,  or of a type defined by a typedef declaration to be an
  array of unknown size, cannot be completed.

4 Expressions that have incomplete type are prohibited in some contexts.
  For example:
          class X;             // X is an incomplete type
          extern X* xp;        // xp is a pointer to an incomplete type
          extern int arr[];    // the type of arr is incomplete
          typedef int UNKA[];  // UNKA is an incomplete type
          UNKA* arrp;          // arrp is a pointer to an incomplete type
          UNKA** arrpp;
          void foo()
          {
              xp++;             // ill-formed:  X is incomplete
              arrp++;           // ill-formed:  incomplete type
              arrpp++;          // okay: sizeof UNKA* is known
          }
          struct X { int i; };  // now X is a complete type
          int  arr[10];         // now the type of arr is complete
          X x;
          void bar()
          {
              xp = &x;          // okay; type is ``pointer to X''
              arrp = &arr;      // ill-formed: different types
              xp++;             // okay:  X is complete
              arrp++;           // ill-formed:  UNKA can't be completed
          }

  3.7.1  Fundamental types                           [basic.fundamental]

1 There  are  several  fundamental types.  The standard header <climits>
  specifies the largest and smallest values of each for  an  implementa­
  tion.

2 Objects  declared  as  characters  char) are large enough to store any
  member of the implementation's basic character set.   If  a  character
  from  this set is stored in a character variable, its value is equiva­
  lent to the integer code of that  character.   It  is  implementation-
  specified  whether a char object can take on negative values.  Charac­
  ters may be explicitly  declared  unsigned  or  signed.   Plain  char,
  signed char,  and  unsigned char  are three distinct types.  A char, a
  signed char, and an unsigned char occupy the same amount  of  storage.
  In  any  particular  implementation,  a  plain char object can take on
  either the same values as a signed char or an unsigned char; which one
  is implementation-defined.

3 An enumeration comprises a set of named integer constant values, which
  form the basis for an integral subrange that  includes  those  values.
  Each  distinct  enumeration  constitutes  a different enumerated type.
  Each constant has the type of its enumeration.

4 There are four signed integer types: signed char, short int, int,  and
  long  int.   In this list, each type provides at least as much storage
  as those preceding it in the list, but the implementation  may  other­
  wise make any of them equal in storage size.  Plain ints have the nat­
  ural size suggested by the  machine  architecture;  the  other  signed
  integer types are provided to meet special needs.

5 For  each  of  the  signed integer types, there exists a corresponding
  (but different) unsigned integer type: unsigned char,  unsigned  short
  int,  unsigned  int, and unsigned long int, each of which occupies the
  same amount  of  storage  and  has  the  same  alignment  requirements
  (_intro.memory_) as the corresponding signed integer type.4) An align­
  ment  requirement  is  an  implementation-dependent restriction on the
  value of a  pointer  to  an  object  of  a  given  type  (_expr.cast_,
  _intro.memory_).

6 Unsigned integers, declared unsigned, obey the laws of arithmetic mod­
  ulo 2n where n is the number of bits in  the  representation  of  that
  particular  size  of  integer.   This implies that unsigned arithmetic
  does not overflow.

7 Type wchar_t is a distinct type whose values  can  represent  distinct
  codes  for all members of the largest extended character set specified
  among the supported locales (_lib.locale_).  Type wchar_t has the same
  size,  signedness,  and alignment requirements (_intro.memory_) as one
  of the other integral types, called its underlying type.

  _________________________
  4)  See  _dcl.type.simple_  regarding the correspondence between types
  and the sequences of type-specifiers that designate them.

8 Values  of  type  bool  can  be  either  true or false.5) There are no
  signed, unsigned, short, or long bool types or values.   As  described
  below,  bool values behave as integral types.  Thus, for example, they
  participate in integral  promotions  (_conv.prom_,  _expr.type.conv_).
  Although  values of type bool generally behave as signed integers, for
  example by promoting (_conv.prom_) to int instead of  unsigned int,  a
  bool  value can successfully be stored in a bit-field of any (nonzero)
  size.

9 There are three floating point types: float, double, and long  double.
  The  type double provides at least as much precision as float, and the
  type long double provides at least as much precision as double.   Each
  implementation defines the characteristics of the fundamental floating
  point types in the standard header <cfloat>.

10Types bool, char, wchar_t, and the signed and unsigned  integer  types
  are  collectively  called integral types.  A synonym for integral type
  is integer type.  Enumerations (_dcl.enum_) are not integral, but they
  can  be promoted (_conv.prom_) to int, unsigned int, long, or unsigned
  long.  Integral and floating types are collectively called  arithmetic
  types.

11The  void  type  specifies  an empty set of values.  It is used as the
  return type for functions that do not return a value.   No  object  of
  type void may be declared.  Any expression may be explicitly converted
  to type void (_expr.cast_); the resulting expression may be used  only
  as  an  expression  statement  (_stmt.expr_), as the left operand of a
  comma expression (_expr.comma_), or as a second or third operand of ?:
  (_expr.cond_).

  3.7.2  Compound types                                 [basic.compound]

1 There  is a conceptually infinite number of compound types constructed
  from the fundamental types in the following ways:

  --arrays of objects of a given type, _dcl.array_;

  --functions, which have parameters of given types and  return  objects
    of a given type, _dcl.fct_;

  --pointers  to  objects  or  functions  (including  static  members of
    classes) of a given type, _dcl.ptr_;

  --references to objects or functions of a given type, _dcl.ref_;

  --constants, which are values of a given type, _dcl.type_;

  --classes containing a sequence of objects of various types (_class_),
  _________________________
  5) Using a bool value in ways described by this International Standard
  as  ``undefined,''  such as by examining the value of an uninitialized
  automatic variable, might cause it to behave as if is neither true nor
  false.

    a  set  of  functions for manipulating these objects (_class.mfct_),
    and a set of restrictions on the access to these objects  and  func­
    tions, _class.access_;

  --structures,  which  are classes without default access restrictions,
    _class.access_;

  --unions, which are classes capable of containing objects of different
    types at different times, _class.union_;

  --pointers to non-static6) class members, which identify members of  a
    given type within objects of a given class, _dcl.mptr_.

2 In  general, these methods of constructing types can be applied recur­
  sively;  restrictions  are  mentioned   in   _dcl.ptr_,   _dcl.array_,
  _dcl.fct_, and _dcl.ref_.

3 Any  type  so  far mentioned is an unqualified type.  Each unqualified
  type  has  three  corresponding  qualified  versions  of its type:7) a
  const-qualified version, a volatile-qualified version,  and  a  const-
  volatile-qualified  version  (see  _dcl.type_).   The  cv-qualified or
  unqualified versions of a type are distinct types that belong  to  the
  same   category   and  have  the  same  representation  and  alignment
  requirements.8)    A    compound    type    is    not     cv-qualified
  (_basic.type.qualifier_)  by  the  cv-qualifiers  (if any) of the type
  from which it is compounded.  However, an array type is considered  to
  be  cv-qualified  by the cv-qualifiers of its element type.  Moreover,
  when an array type is cv-qualified, its element type is considered  to
  have the same cv-qualifiers.

4 A  pointer  to  objects  of a type T is referred to as a pointer to T.
  For example, a pointer to an object of type  int  is  referred  to  as
  pointer  to  int  and  a  pointer  to an object of class X is called a
  pointer to X.  Pointers to incomplete types are allowed although there
  are restrictions on what can be done with them (_basic.types_).

5 Objects  of  cv-qualified (_basic.type.qualifier_) or unqualified type
  void* (pointer to void), can be used to point to  objects  of  unknown
  type.  A void* must have enough bits to hold any object pointer.

6 Except for pointers to static members, text referring to pointers does
  not apply to pointers to members.

  _________________________
  6) Static class members are objects or functions, and pointers to them
  are ordinary pointers to objects or functions.
  7) See _dcl.array_ and  _dcl.fct_  regarding  cv-qualified  array  and
  function types.
  8) The same representation and alignment requirements are meant to im­
  ply  interchangeability  as arguments to functions, return values from
  functions, and members of unions.

  3.7.3  CV-qualifiers                            [basic.type.qualifier]

  +-------                     BEGIN BOX 18                     -------+
  This section covers the same  information  as  section  _dcl.type.cv_.
  This information should probably be consolidated in one place.
  +-------                      END BOX 18                      -------+

1 There  are  two cv-qualifiers, const and volatile.  When applied to an
  object, const means  the  program  may  not  change  the  object,  and
  volatile  has  an implementation-defined meaning.9) An object may have
  both cv-qualifiers.

2 There is a (partial) ordering on cv-qualifiers, so that one object  or
  pointer  may  be  said  to be more cv-qualified than another.  Table 1
  shows the relations that constitute this ordering.

                 Table 1--relations on const and volatile

                  +-------------------------------------+
                  |no cv-qualifier   <       const      |
                  |no cv-qualifier   <      volatile    |
                  |no cv-qualifier   <   const volatile |
                  |     const        <   const volatile |
                  |   volatile       <   const volatile |
                  +-------------------------------------+

3 A pointer or reference to cv-qualified type (sometimes  called  a  cv-
  qualified  pointer  or  reference)  need  not  actually point to a cv-
  qualified object, but it is treated as if it  does.   For  example,  a
  pointer  to  const  int  may  point to an unqualified int, but a well-
  formed program may not attempt to change the pointed-to object through
  that  pointer  even  though it may change the same object through some
  other access path.  CV-qualifiers are supported by the type system  so
  that  a  cv-qualified  object or cv-qualified access path to an object
  may not be subverted without casting (_expr.cast_).  For example:

  _________________________
  9)  Roughly,  volatile  means  the object may change of its own accord
  (that is, the processor may not assume that the  object  continues  to
  hold a previously held value).

          void f()
          {
              int i = 2;         // not cv-qualified
              const int ci = 3;  // cv-qualified (initialized as required)
              ci = 4;            // error: attempt to modify const
              const int* cip;    // pointer to const int
              cip = &i;          // okay: cv-qualified access path to unqualified
              *cip = 4;          // error: attempt to modify through ptr to const
              int* ip;
              ip = cip;          // error: attempt to convert const int* to int*
          }

4 In this document, the notation cv (or cv1, cv2,  etc.),  used  in  the
  description  of  types,  represents an arbitrary set of cv-qualifiers,
  i.e., one of {const}, {volatile}, {const, volatile}, or the empty set.
  Cv-qualifiers  applied  to an array type attach to the underlying ele­
  ment type, so the notation cv T, where T is an array type,  refers  to
  an  array  whose  elements  are so-qualified.  Such array types can be
  said to be more (or less) cv-qualified than other types based  on  the
  cv-qualification of the underlying element types.

  3.7.4  Type names                                    [basic.type.name]

1 Fundamental and compound types can be given names by the typedef mech­
  anism (_dcl.typedef_), and families of  types  and  functions  can  be
  specified and named by the template mechanism (_temp_).

  3.8  Lvalues and rvalues                                  [basic.lval]

1 Every expression is either an lvalue or rvalue.

2 An  lvalue refers to an object or function.  Some rvalue expressions--
  those of class or cv-qualified class type--also refer to objects.10)

3 Some builtin operators and function calls yield lvalues.  For example,
  if E is an expression of pointer type, then *E is an lvalue expression
  referring  to  the  object  or function to which E points.  As another
  example, the function
          int& f();
  yields an lvalue, so the call f() is an lvalue expression.

4 Some builtin operators expect lvalue operands, for example the builtin
  assignment  operators  all expect their left hand operands to be lval­
  ues.  Other builtin operators yield rvalues,  and  some  expect  them.
  For  example  the  unary and binary + operator expect rvalue arguments
  and yield rvalue results.  The discussion of each builtin operator  in
  _expr_  indicates  whether  it  expects lvalue operands and whether it
  yields an lvalue.
  _________________________
  10) Expressions such as invocations of constructors and  of  functions
  that  return a class type do in some sense refer to an object, and the
  implementation may invoke a member function upon such objects, but the
  expressions are not lvalues.

5 Constructor invocations and calls to functions that do not return ref­
  erences are always rvalues.  User defined operators are functions, and
  whether such operators expect or yield lvalues is determined by  their
  type.

6 The  discussion  of  reference initialization in _dcl.init.ref_ and of
  temporaries in _class.temporary_ indicates the behavior of lvalues and
  rvalues in other significant contexts.

7 Class  rvalues may have qualified types; non-class rvalues always have
  unqualified types.

8 Whenever an lvalue appears  in  a  context  where  an  lvalue  is  not
  expected,  the  lvalue  is  converted  to  an rvalue; see _conv.lval_,
  _conv.array_, and _conv.func_.

9 An lvalue or rvalue of class type can also be used to modify its  ref­
  erent under certain circumstances.

  +-------                     BEGIN BOX 19                     -------+
  Provide example and cross-reference.
  +-------                      END BOX 19                      -------+

10Functions cannot be modified, but pointers to functions may be modifi­
  able.

11A pointer to an incomplete type may be modifiable.  At some  point  in
  the  program  when  this pointer type is complete, the object at which
  the pointer points may also be modified.

12Array objects cannot be modified, but their elements  may  be  modifi­
  able.

13The  referent  of  a  const-qualified expression shall not be modified
  (through that expression), except that if it is of class type and  has
  a mutable component, that component may be modified.

14If  an expression can be used to modify its object, it is called modi­
  fiable.  A program that attempts to modify an object through a nonmod­
  ifiable lvalue or rvalue expression is ill-formed.