______________________________________________________________________

  15   Exception handling                                       [except]

  ______________________________________________________________________

1 Exception handling provides a way of transferring control and informa-
  tion  from  a point in the execution of a program to an exception han-
  dler associated with a point previously passed by  the  execution.   A
  handler  will  be  invoked  only by a throw-expression invoked in code
  executed in the handler's try block or in functions  called  from  the
  handler's try block .
          try-block:
                   try compound-statement handler-seq
          function-try-block:
                   try  ctor-initializeropt function-body handler-seq
          handler-seq:
                  handler handler-seqopt
          handler:
                  catch ( exception-declaration ) compound-statement
          exception-declaration:
                  type-specifier-seq declarator
                  type-specifier-seq abstract-declarator
                  type-specifier-seq
                  ...
          throw-expression:
                  throw assignment-expressionopt
  A  try-block  is  a statement (_stmt.stmt_).  A throw-expression is of
  type void.  Code that executes a throw-expression is said to "throw an
  exception;" code that subsequently gets control is called a "handler."
  [Note: within this clause "try block" is taken to mean both  try-block
  and function-try-block.  ]

2 A  goto,  break, return, or continue statement can be used to transfer
  control out of a try block or handler, but not into  one.   When  this
  happens,  each variable declared in the try block will be destroyed in
  the context that directly contains its declaration.  [Example:
          lab:  try {
                     T1 t1;
                     try {
                            T2 t2;
                            if (condition)
                                  goto lab;
                     } catch(...) { /* handler 2 */ }
                } catch(...) { /*  handler 1 */ }
  Here, executing goto lab; will destroy first t2, then t1, assuming the
  condition  does  not  declare  a variable.  Any exception raised while
  destroying t2 will result in executing handler 2; any exception raised
  while destroying t1 will result in executing handler 1.  ]

3 A  function-try-block  associates a handler-seq with the ctor-initial-
  izer, if present, and the function-body.  An exception  thrown  during
  the  execution  of the initializer expressions in the ctor-initializer
  or during the execution of the function-body transfers  control  to  a
  handler in a function-try-block in the same way as an exception thrown
  during the execution of a try-block transfers control  to  other  han-
  dlers.  [Example:
          int f(int);
          class C {
                  int i;
                  double d;
          public:
                  C(int, double);
          };
          C::C(int ii, double id)
          try
                  : i(f(ii)), d(id)
          {
                  // constructor function body
          }
          catch (...)
          {
                  // handles exceptions thrown from the ctor-initializer
                  // and from the constructor function body
          }
   --end example]

  15.1  Throwing an exception                             [except.throw]

1 Throwing  an  exception  transfers control to a handler.  An object is
  passed and the type of that object determines which handlers can catch
  it.  [Example:
          throw "Help!";
  can be caught by a handler of some char* type:
          try {
              // ...
          }
          catch(const char* p) {
              // handle character string exceptions here
          }
  and
          class Overflow {
              // ...
          public:
              Overflow(char,double,double);
          };
          void f(double x)
          {
              // ...
              throw Overflow('+',x,3.45e107);
          }
  can be caught by a handler for exceptions of type Overflow

          try {
              // ...
              f(1.2);
              // ...
          }
          catch(Overflow& oo) {
              // handle exceptions of type Overflow here
          }
   --end example]

2 When  an  exception  is  thrown, control is transferred to the nearest
  handler with a matching type (_except.handle_);  "nearest"  means  the
  handler  whose  try  block  was most recently entered by the thread of
  control and not yet exited.

3 A throw-expression initializes a temporary object, the type  of  which
  is  determined by removing any top-level cv-qualifiers from the static
  type of the operand of throw and adjusting the type from "array of  T"
  or  "function  returning  T" to "pointer to T" or "pointer to function
  returning T", respectively. The temporary is used  to  initialize  the
  variable named in the matching handler (_except.handle_).  The type of
  the throw-expression shall not be an incomplete type, or a pointer  or
  reference  to  an  incomplete  type,  other  than  void*, const void*,
  volatile void*, or const volatile void*.  Except  for  these  restric-
  tions  and the restrictions on type matching mentioned in _except.han-
  dle_, the operand of throw is treated exactly as a  function  argument
  in a call (_expr.call_) or the operand of a return statement.

4 The  memory  for  the  temporary copy of the exception being thrown is
  allocated   in   an   unspecified   way,   except    as    noted    in
  _basic.stc.dynamic.allocation_.   The  temporary  persists  as long as
  there is a handler being executed for that exception.  In  particular,
  if  a  handler exits by executing a throw; statement, that passes con-
  trol to another handler for  the  same  exception,  so  the  temporary
  remains.  If the use of the temporary object can be eliminated without
  changing the meaning of the program except for the execution  of  con-
  structors  and  destructors  associated  with the use of the temporary
  object (_class.temporary_), then the exception in the handler  can  be
  initialized  directly with the argument of the throw expression.  When
  the thrown object is a class object, and the copy constructor used  to
  initialize  the  temporary copy is not accessible, the program is ill-
  formed (even when the temporary object could otherwise be eliminated).
  Similarly,  if  the  destructor for that object is not accessible, the
  program is ill-formed (even when the temporary object could  otherwise
  be eliminated).

5 A  throw-expression  with no operand rethrows the exception being han-
  dled without copying it.  [Example: code that must be executed because
  of  an  exception  yet  cannot  completely handle the exception can be
  written like this:

          try {
              // ...
          }
          catch (...) {  // catch all exceptions

              // respond (partially) to exception

              throw;     // pass the exception to some
                         // other handler
          }
   --end example]

6 The exception thrown is the one most recently caught and not finished.
  An  exception is considered caught when initialization is complete for
  the formal parameter of the corresponding catch clause, or when termi-
  nate()  or  unexpected()  is  entered due to a throw.  An exception is
  considered finished when the corresponding catch clause exits or  when
  unexpected() exits after being entered due to a throw.

7 If  no exception is presently being handled, executing a throw-expres-
  sion with no operand calls terminate() (_except.terminate_).

  15.2  Constructors and destructors                       [except.ctor]

1 As control passes from a throw-expression to  a  handler,  destructors
  are  invoked for all automatic objects constructed since the try block
  was entered.  The automatic objects are destroyed in the reverse order
  of the completion of their construction.

2 An object that is partially constructed will have destructors executed
  only for its fully constructed sub-objects.  Should a constructor  for
  an  element  of  an  automatic array throw an exception, only the con-
  structed elements of that array will be destroyed.  If the  object  or
  array  was  allocated  in a new-expression and the new-expression does
  not   contain   a    new-placement,    the    deallocation    function
  (_basic.stc.dynamic.deallocation_, _class.free_) is called to free the
  storage occupied by the object; the deallocation function is chosen as
  specified  in  _expr.new_.   If the object or array was allocated in a
  new-expression and the new-expression contains  a  new-placement,  the
  storage  occupied  by the object is deallocated only if an appropriate
  placement operator delete is found, as specified in _expr.new_.

3 The process of calling destructors for automatic  objects  constructed
  on  the  path  from a try block to a throw-expression is called "stack
  unwinding."

  15.3  Handling an exception                            [except.handle]

1 The exception-declaration in a handler describes the type(s) of excep-
  tions that can cause that handler to be entered.  The exception-decla-
  ration shall not denote an incomplete type.  The exception-declaration
  shall  not  denote a pointer or reference to an incomplete type, other
  than void*, const void*, volatile  void*,  or  const  volatile  void*.
  Types shall not be defined in an exception-declaration.

2 A  handler  of type "array of T" or "function returning T" is adjusted
  to be of type "pointer to T" or "pointer  to  function  returning  T",
  respectively.

3 A  handler  is a match for a throw-expression with an object of type E
  if

  --The handler is of type cv T or cv T& and E and T are the  same  type
    (ignoring the top-level cv-qualifiers), or

  --the  handler is of type cv T or cv T& and T is an unambiguous public
    base class of E, or

  --the handler is of type cv1 T* cv2 and E is a pointer type  that  can
    be converted to the type of the handler by either or both of

    --a  standard  pointer conversion (_conv.ptr_) not involving conver-
      sions to pointers to private or protected or ambiguous classes

    --a qualification conversion

4 [Example:
          class Matherr { /* ... */ virtual vf(); };
          class Overflow: public Matherr { /* ... */ };
          class Underflow: public Matherr { /* ... */ };
          class Zerodivide: public Matherr { /* ... */ };
          void f()
          {
              try {
                  g();
              }
              catch (Overflow oo) {
                  // ...
              }
              catch (Matherr mm) {
                  // ...
              }
          }
  Here, the Overflow handler will catch exceptions of type Overflow  and
  the  Matherr  handler will catch exceptions of type Matherr and of all
  types publicly derived  from  Matherr  including  exceptions  of  type
  Underflow and Zerodivide.  ]

5 The  handlers  for a try block are tried in order of appearance.  That
  makes it possible to write handlers that can never  be  executed,  for
  example by placing a handler for a derived class after a handler for a
  corresponding base class.

6 A ...  in a handler's exception-declaration functions similarly to ...
  in  a  function  parameter  declaration;  it specifies a match for any
  exception.  If present, a ...  handler shall be the last  handler  for
  its try block.

7 If  no  match  is found among the handlers for a try block, the search
  for a matching handler continues  in  a  dynamically  surrounding  try
  block.

8 An  exception  is  considered handled upon entry to a handler.  [Note:
  the stack will have been unwound at that point.  ]

9 If no matching handler is found in a program, the function terminate()
  (_except.terminate_)  is  called.  Whether or not the stack is unwound
  before calling terminate() is implementation-defined.

10Referring to any non-static member or base class of an object  in  the
  handler  for  a  function-try-block of a constructor or destructor for
  that object results in undefined behavior.

11The fully constructed base classes and members of an object  shall  be
  destroyed  before  entering  the  handler of a function-try-block of a
  constructor or destructor for that object.

12The scope and lifetime of the parameters of a function or  constructor
  extend into the handlers of a function-try-block.

13Exceptions  thrown in destructors of objects with static storage dura-
  tion or in constructors of namespace-scope objects are not caught by a
  function-try-block on main().

14If  the  handlers of a function-try-block contain a jump into the body
  of a constructor or destructor, the program is ill-formed.

15If a return statement appears in a handler of  the  function-try-block
  of a constructor, the program is ill-formed.

16The  exception being handled is rethrown if control reaches the end of
  a handler of the function-try-block of a  constructor  or  destructor.
  Otherwise,  a  function returns when control reaches the end of a han-
  dler for the function-try-block (_stmt.return_).

17When the exception-declaration specifies a class  type,  a  copy  con-
  structor  is  used  to  initialize  either  the object declared in the
  exception-declaration or, if the exception-declaration does not  spec-
  ify  a  name,  a  temporary object of that type.  The object shall not
  have an abstract class type.  The object is destroyed when the handler
  exits,  after  the  destruction  of  any automatic objects initialized
  within the handler.  The copy  constructor  and  destructor  shall  be
  accessible in the context of the handler.  If the copy constructor and
  destructor are implicitly declared (_class.copy_), such a use  in  the
  handler  causes  these  functions to be implicitly defined; otherwise,
  the program shall provide a definition for these functions.

18If the use of a temporary object can be  eliminated  without  changing
  the  meaning  of  the program except for execution of constructors and
  destructors associated with the use of the temporary object, then  the
  optional  name can be bound directly to the temporary object specified
  in a throw-expression causing the handler to be  executed.   The  copy

  constructor  and destructor associated with the object shall be acces-
  sible even when the temporary object is eliminated.

  +-------                      BEGIN BOX 1                     -------+
  The option of aliasing the handler variable with the temporary  object
  is  almost  certainly  wrong,  and needs to be changed (given a ballot
  comment) in the next version.
  +-------                       END BOX 1                      -------+

19When the handler declares a non-constant object, any changes  to  that
  object  will  not  affect the temporary object that was initialized by
  execution of the throw-expression.  When the handler declares a refer-
  ence  to  a  non-constant object, any changes to the referenced object
  are changes to the temporary object initialized when the throw-expres-
  sion was executed and will have effect should that object be rethrown.

  15.4  Exception specifications                           [except.spec]

1 A function  declaration  lists  exceptions  that  its  function  might
  directly  or indirectly throw by using an exception-specification as a
  suffix of its declarator.
          exception-specification:
                  throw ( type-id-listopt )
          type-id-list:
                  type-id
                  type-id-list ,  type-id
  An exception-specification shall appear only on a function  declarator
  in  a function, pointer, reference or pointer to member declaration or
  definition.  An exception-specification shall not appear in a  typedef
  declaration.  [Example:
          void f() throw(int);             // OK
          void (*fp)() throw (int);        // OK
          void g(void pfa() throw(int));   // OK
          typedef int (*pf)() throw(int);  // ill-formed
   --end example] A type denoted in an exception-specification shall not
  denote an incomplete type. A type denoted in  an  exception-specifica-
  tion  shall  not  denote a pointer or reference to an incomplete type,
  other than void*, const  void*,  volatile  void*,  or  const  volatile
  void*.

  +-------                      BEGIN BOX 2                     -------+
  Shouldn't the copy constructor be accessible for any (top-level) class
  type, so that it is possible to transform the exception  specification
  into a function try block?
  +-------                       END BOX 2                      -------+

2 If  any  declaration of a function has an exception-specification, all
  declarations, including the definition and an explicit specialization,
  of  that  function shall have an exception-specification with the same
  set of type-ids.  If any declaration of a pointer to function,  refer-
  ence to function, or pointer to member function has an exception-spec-
  ification,  all  occurrences  of  that  declaration  shall   have   an

  exception-specification with the same set of type-ids.  In an explicit
  instantiation directive an exception-specification may  be  specified,
  but  is not required. If an exception-specification is specified in an
  explicit instantiation directive, it shall have the same set of  type-
  ids  as other declarations of that function.  A diagnostic is required
  only if the sets of type-ids are different within a single translation
  unit.

3 If  a  virtual  function  has an exception-specification, all declara-
  tions, including the definition, of any function that  overrides  that
  virtual function in any derived class shall only allow exceptions that
  are allowed by the exception-specification of the base  class  virtual
  function.  [Example:
          struct B {
              virtual void f() throw (int, double);
              virtual void g();
          };

          struct D: B {
              void f();                    // ill-formed
              void g() throw (int);        // OK
          };
  The  declaration  of  D::f  is ill-formed because it allows all excep-
  tions, whereas B::f allows only int  and  double.   ]  Similarly,  any
  function  or  pointer  to  function  assigned  to,  or initializing, a
  pointer to function shall only allow exceptions that  are  allowed  by
  the pointer or function being assigned to or initialized.  [Example:
          void (*pf1)();    // no exception specification
          void (*pf2)() throw(A);

          void f()
          {
                  pf1 = pf2;  // ok: pf1 is less restrictive
                  pf2 = pf1;  // error: pf2 is more restrictive
          }
   --end example]

4 In  such  an assignment or initialization, exception-specifications on
  return types and  parameter  types  shall  match  exactly.   In  other
  assignments  or  initializations, exception-specifications shall match
  exactly.

  +-------                      BEGIN BOX 3                     -------+
  This was commented out in the typesetting document source.  Why?

5 Calling a function through a declaration whose exception-specification
  allows other exceptions than those allowed by the exception-specifica-
  tion of the function's definition is  ill-formed.   No  diagnostic  is
  required.  [San Diego motion 23]
  +-------                       END BOX 3                      -------+

6 Types shall not be defined in exception-specifications.

7 An  exception-specification  can  include the same type more than once
  and can include classes that are related by inheritance,  even  though
  doing  so  is  redundant.  An exception-specification can also include
  the class std::bad_exception (_lib.bad.exception_).

8 If a class X is in the type-id-list of the exception-specification  of
  a  function, that function is said to allow exception objects of class
  X or any class publicly and unambiguously derived from X.   Similarly,
  if  a pointer type Y* is in the type-id-list of the exception-specifi-
  cation of a function, the function allows exceptions  of  type  Y*  or
  that  are pointers to any type publicly and unambiguously derived from
  Y.  Otherwise, a function only allows exceptions that  have  the  same
  type as the types specified in the type-id-list of its exception-spec-
  ification.

9 Whenever  an  exception  is  thrown  and  the  search  for  a  handler
  (_except.handle_) encounters the outermost block of a function with an
  exception-specification,   the   function   unexpected()   is   called
  (_except.unexpected_)  if  the  exception-specification does not allow
  the exception.  [Example:
          class X { };
          class Y { };
          class Z: public X { };
          class W { };

          void f() throw (X, Y)
          {
              int n = 0;
              if (n) throw X();        // OK
              if (n) throw Z();        // also OK
              throw W();               // will call unexpected()
          }
   --end example]

10The function unexpected() may throw an exception that will satisfy the
  exception-specification for which it was invoked, and in this case the
  search for another handler will continue at the call of  the  function
  with this exception-specification (see _except.unexpected_), or it may
  call terminate().

11An implementation shall not reject an expression merely  because  when
  executed  it  throws  or  might throw an exception that the containing
  function does not allow.  [Example:
          extern void f() throw(X, Y);

          void g() throw(X)
          {
                  f();                 // OK
          }
  the call to f is well-formed even though when called,  f  might  throw
  exception Y that g does not allow.  ]

12A  function  with no exception-specification allows all exceptions.  A
  function with an  empty  exception-specification,  throw(),  does  not

  allow any exceptions.

13An  exception-specification  is  not  considered  part of a function's
  type.

14An implicitly declared special member function (_special_) shall  have
  an  exception-specification.   If  f is an implicitly declared default
  constructor, copy constructor, destructor, or copy  assignment  opera-
  tor,  its  implicit exception-specification specifies the type-id T if
  and only if T is allowed by the exception-specification of a  function
  directly  invoked  by  f's  implicitly  definition;  f shall allow all
  exceptions if any function it directly invokes allows all  exceptions,
  and  f shall allow no exceptions if every function it directly invokes
  allows no exceptions.  [Example:
          struct A {
              A();
              A(const A&) throw();
              ~A() throw(X);
          };
          struct B {
              B() throw();
              B(const B&) throw();
              ~B() throw(Y);
          };
          struct D : public A, public B {
              // Implicit declaration of D::D();
              // Implicit declaration of D::D(const D&) throw();
              // Implicit declaration of D::~D() throw (X,Y);
          };
  Furthermore, if A::~A() or B::~B() were virtual, D::~D() would not  be
  as  restrictive  as that of A::~A, and the program would be ill-formed
  since a function that overrides a virtual function from a  base  class
  shall  have an exception-specification at least as restrictive as that
  in the base class.  ]

  15.5  Special functions                               [except.special]

1 The exception handling mechanism relies on two functions,  terminate()
  and unexpected(), for coping with errors related to the exception han-
  dling mechanism itself (_lib.support.exception_).

  15.5.1  The terminate() function                    [except.terminate]

1 In the following situations exception handling must be  abandoned  for
  less subtle error handling techniques:

  --when  the  exception handling mechanism, after completing evaluation
    of the expression to be thrown but before the  exception  is  caught
    (_except.throw_),  calls  a user function that exits via an uncaught
    exception,1)
  _________________________
  1) For example, if the object being thrown is of a class with  a  copy
  constructor, terminate() will be called if that copy constructor exits
  with an exception during a throw.

  --when the exception handling mechanism cannot find a  handler  for  a
    thrown exception (_except.handle_), or

  --when   the   destruction   of   an  object  during  stack  unwinding
    (_except.ctor_) exits using an exception, or

  --when construction or destruction of a non-local object  with  static
    storage duration exits using an exception (_basic.start.init_), or

  --when  execution  of a function registered with atexit exits using an
    exception (_lib.support.start.term_), or

  --when a throw-expression with  no  operand  attempts  to  rethrow  an
    exception and no exception is being handled (_except.throw_), or

  --when unexpected throws an exception which is not allowed by the pre-
    viously violated exception-specification, and std::bad_exception  is
    not  included in that exception-specification (_except.unexpected_),
    or

  --when  the  implementation's  default  unexpected_handler  is  called
    (_lib.unexpected.handler_)

2 In such cases,
          void terminate();
  is called (_lib.exception.terminate_).

  15.5.2  The unexpected() function                  [except.unexpected]

1 If a function with an exception-specification throws an exception that
  is not listed in the exception-specification, the function
          void unexpected();
  is called (_lib.exception.unexpected_)  immediately  after  completing
  the stack unwinding for the former function

2 The  unexpected()  function shall not return, but it can throw (or re-
  throw) an exception.  If it throws a new exception which is allowed by
  the  exception  specification  which previously was violated, then the
  search for another handler will continue at the call of  the  function
  whose  exception specification was violated.  If it throws or rethrows
  an exception that the exception-specification does not allow then  the
  following happens: if the exception-specification does not include the
  class std::bad_exception (_lib.bad.exception_) then the function  ter-
  minate()  is  called, otherwise the thrown exception is replaced by an
  implementation-defined object of the type std::bad_exception  and  the
  search  for  another handler will continue at the call of the function
  whose exception-specification was violated.

3 Thus, an  exception-specification  guarantees  that  only  the  listed
  exceptions  will  be  thrown.  If the exception-specification includes
  the type std::bad_exception then any exception not on the list may  be
  replaced by std::bad_exception within the function unexpected().

  15.5.3  The uncaught_exception() function            [except.uncaught]

1 See _lib.uncaught_.

  15.6  Exceptions and access                            [except.access]

1 If the exception-declaration in a catch clause has class type, and the
  function in which the catch clause occurs does not have access to  the
  destructor of that class, the program is ill-formed.

2 An  object can be thrown if it can be copied and destroyed in the con-
  text of the function in which the throw-expression occurs.